Photo Courtesy: warfarehistorynetwork.com
Operation Compass, spanning from December 1940 to February 1941, was the Allies’ first significant victory of the war and a humiliating defeat for Mussolini’s Italy. What began as a limited raid evolved into a sweeping campaign that shattered Italian hopes for dominance in the region.
The Theater of War
The Western Desert, stretching across Egypt and Libya, is not a kind place. It’s harsh, unforgiving, and offers little respite to those who venture into its vast emptiness. The primary geographical points of interest during Operation Compass were:
- Mersa Matruh: A coastal Egyptian town that served as a staging ground for British forces.
- Sidi Barrani: The first major Italian stronghold in Egypt, a stone’s throw from the border.
- Cyrenaica, in Libya: This region housed key Italian positions, including Bardia, Tobruk, and Benghazi.
This stretch of desert was far more than a sandbox for military games—it was strategic gold. Whoever controlled the region could threaten the Suez Canal, the lifeline of the British Empire, and the oil-rich Middle East. To Mussolini, this wasn’t just a campaign; it was a step toward reviving the Roman Empire.
Why Operation Compass ?
By late 1940, the Italian Army had advanced into Egypt but halted at Sidi Barrani. Mussolini, keen to outshine his German ally, believed the conquest of Egypt was within reach. The British, however, had other plans. Recognizing the Italian vulnerabilities—overstretched supply lines, outdated equipment, and poor leadership—the British High Command devised Operation Compass.
What was intended as a five-day raid morphed into a large-scale offensive. The Allies saw an opportunity not just to push the Italians out of Egypt but to deliver a crippling blow to their North African ambitions.
Opposing Forces: David vs. Goliath
The Italian Forces
General Mario Berti. Photo Courtesy: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Berti
- Strength: Over 150,000 troops, supported by 1,200 artillery pieces, 275 tanks, and 300 aircraft.
- Command: The Tenth Army, initially led by General Mario Berti, later replaced by General Giuseppe Tellera.
- Shortcomings: Despite their numerical advantage, the Italians were plagued by poor morale, inadequate training, and equipment that seemed more suited for museum displays than modern battlefields.
The British and Commonwealth Troops
General Richard O’Connor. Photo Source: historyguild.org
- Strength: About 36,000 soldiers, supported by 120 artillery pieces, 275 tanks and 142 aircraft.
- Leadership: The Western Desert Force was commanded by the brilliant and pragmatic General Richard O’Connor.
- Strengths: What the British lacked in numbers, they made up for with superior tactics, modern equipment (including the formidable Matilda II tanks), and troops who were motivated and battle-hardened.
The Strategy: Deception and Speed
Italian Goals
Mussolini aimed to sweep through Egypt, seize the Suez Canal, and disrupt British imperial trade routes. His plan relied on brute force but lacked flexibility or contingency planning.
British Strategy
Operation Compass was a masterclass in using limited resources to maximum effect. The British relied on:
- Surprise: The Italians were lulled into a false sense of security, believing the British lacked the strength to mount an offensive.
- Mobility: Using vehicles like the Universal Carrier, British forces outmaneuvered the Italians across the vast desert.
- Divide and Conquer: The plan was to isolate and destroy Italian garrisons one by one, ensuring that the enemy couldn’t regroup.
The Battle: Highlights of Operation Compass
Sidi Barrani: The First Strike
Photo Courtesy: worldwariipodcast.net
On December 9, 1940, the British launched their surprise assault on Italian positions at Sidi Barrani. Under cover of darkness, they infiltrated the Italian camps. What followed was a textbook operation—swift, precise, and devastating. The Italians, caught off guard, were forced into a chaotic retreat. The British captured nearly 40,000 prisoners, along with vast quantities of supplies.
Bardia: Fortress Falls
The next major target was Bardia, a heavily fortified town just across the Libyan border. By early January 1941, British forces had encircled the town. Using coordinated infantry and tank assaults, they breached the defenses, capturing another 45,000 Italian soldiers.
The Capture of Tobruk
Tobruk, a key port city, was next. British and Commonwealth troops, buoyed by their earlier victories, attacked the city on January 21, 1941. The fall of Tobruk further demoralized Italian forces and provided the Allies with a strategic foothold in Libya.
The Pursuit to Benghazi
In a final push, the British pursued the retreating remnants of the Italian Tenth Army to Benghazi, capturing the city in February 1941. The campaign ended with the destruction of the Tenth Army and the capture of over 130,000 Italian soldiers—a staggering loss for the Axis.
The Aftermath: A Changing Landscape
For the Allies
- Strategic Victory: Operation Compass secured Egypt and the Suez Canal, safeguarding British imperial interests.
- Boost in Morale: The success demonstrated that the Allies could defeat Axis forces, even when outnumbered.
For the Axis
- Italian Humiliation: The defeat exposed the Italian Army’s weaknesses, forcing Germany to intervene directly in North Africa.
- The Arrival of Rommel: In response to the debacle, Hitler sent Erwin Rommel and the Afrika Korps, setting the stage for a prolonged and bloody campaign.
Lessons from Operation Compass
- Leadership Matters: General O’Connor’s ability to adapt and innovate was key to the operation’s success.
- Mobility Wins Wars: In a theater where logistics were as critical as firepower, the British outmaneuvered their enemy with superior mobility.
- Never Underestimate Morale: The contrast between the confident British troops and the dispirited Italians was stark and decisive.
The Bigger Picture: Operation Compass in World War II
While Operation Compass was a resounding success, it also marked the beginning of a more intense phase in the North African campaign. The arrival of German forces under Rommel would turn the tide back and forth, culminating in epic battles like El Alamein. Nonetheless, Compass proved that with the right strategy and leadership, even a smaller force could achieve remarkable results.
Conclusion
Operation Compass was more than just a military victory; it was a turning point that reshaped the war’s trajectory in North Africa. It demonstrated the power of audacity and innovation, the value of leadership, and the enduring truth that numbers alone do not decide battles. For a world gripped by the horrors of war, Compass was a rare moment of triumph that rekindled hope and set the stage for future Allied victories.
In the sands of the Western Desert, history was written—not with grand speeches or sweeping declarations but with bold actions and unyielding resolve. It remains a testament to what can be achieved when courage meets strategy on the battlefield.
